Compiled by Roger Edwards
TORNADO HISTORY, CLIMATOLOGY & RECORDKEEPING
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Ashley, W. S., and S. M. Strader, 2016: Recipe for disaster: How the dynamic ingredients of risk and exposure are changing the tornado disaster landscape. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 97, 767–786.
——, 2007: Spatial and temporal analysis of tornado fatalities in the United States: 1880–2005. Wea. Forecasting, 22, 1214–1228.
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Concannon, P.R., H.E. Brooks and C.A. Doswell III, 2000: Climatological risk of strong and violent tornadoes in the United States. Preprints, 2nd Conf. Environ. Applications, Amer. Meteor. Soc., Long Beach, CA.
Bluestein, H.B., 2009: The formation and early evolution of the Greensburg, Kansas, tornadic supercell on 4 May 2007. Wea. Forecasting, 24, 899–920.
Brooks, H.E., G.W. Carbin, and P.T. Marsh, 2014a: Increased variability of tornado occurrence in the United States. Science, 346, 349–352.
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Coleman, T.A., and P.G. Dixon, 2014: An objective analysis of tornado risk in the United States. Wea. Forecasting, 29, 366–376.
Cook, A.R., and J.T. Schaefer, 2008: The relation of El Nino–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) to winter tornado outbreaks. Mon. Wea. Rev., 136, 3121–3137.
——, L.M. Leslie, D.B. Parsons, and J.T. Schaefer, 2017: The impact of El Nino - Southern Oscillation (ENSO) on winter and early spring U.S. tornado outbreaks. J. Clim. Appl. Meteor., 56, 2455–2478.
Corfidi, S., S. Weiss, J. Kain, S. Corfidi, R. Rabin, and J. Levit, 2010: Revisiting the 3–4 April 1974 Super Outbreak of tornadoes. Wea. Forecasting, 25, 465–510.
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Dean, A.R., 2010: An analysis of clustered tornado events. Preprints, 25th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Denver CO, P2.19.
Doswell, C. A. III, 2007: Small sample size and data quality issues illustrated using tornado occurrence data. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 2(5), 1–16.
——, 2007: Historical overview of severe convective storms research. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 2(1), 1–25.
——, R. Edwards, R.L. Thompson, J.A. Hart, and K.C. Crosbie, 2006: A simple and flexible method for ranking severe weather events. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 939–951.
——, and D. W. Burgess, 1988: On some issues of United States tornado climatology. Mon. Wea. Rev., 116, 495–501.
Dotzek, N., 2003: An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe. Atmos. Res., 67–68, 153–161.
Edwards, R., M. S. Elliott, P. T. Marsh, and D. A. Speheger, 2022: Errors, oddities and artifacts in U.S. tornado data, 1995–2021. Proc., 30th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Santa Fe, NM, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 8.3B.
——, H. E. Brooks, and H. Cohn, 2021: Changes in tornado climatology accompanying the enhanced Fujita scale. J. Appl. Meteor. Clim., 60, 1465–1481.
French, M. M., H. B. Bluestein, L. J. Wicker, D. C. Dowell, and M. R. Kramar, 2009: An example of the use of mobile, Doppler radar data for tornado verification. Wea. Forecasting, 24, 884–891.
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Fujita, T. T., 1989: The Teton–Yellowstone tornado of 21 July 1987. Mon. Wea. Rev. , 117, 1913–1940.
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——, 1974: Jumbo tornado outbreak of 3 April 1974. Weatherwise, 27, 116–126.
——, 1966: Aerial survey of the Palm Sunday tornadoes of April 11, 1965. Satellite and Meteorology Research Paper, 49, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 35 pp.
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Gensini, V. A., and A. Marinaro, 2016: Tornado frequency in the United States related to global relative angular momentum. Mon. Wea. Rev., 144, 801–810.
Grazulis, T. P., 1997: Significant Tornadoes: Update, 1992–1995. Environmental Films, 118 pp.
Grazulis, T. P., 1993: Significant Tornadoes: 1680–1991. Environmental Films, 1326 pp.
Kis, A. K. and J. M. Straka, 2010: Nocturnal tornado climatology. Wea. Forecasting, 25, 545–561.
Lemon, L. R. and M. Umscheid, 2008: The Greensburg, Kansas tornadic storm: A storm of extremes. Preprints, 24th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Savannah, GA, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 2.4.
Ostuno, E. J., 2008: A case study in forensic meteorology: Investigating the 3 April 1956 tornadoes in southwest Lower Michigan. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 3 (1), 1–33.
Ray, P. S., P. Bieringer, X. Niu, and B. Whissel, 2003: An improved estimate of tornado occurrence in the central plains of the United States. Mon. Wea. Rev., 131, 1026–1031.
Schaefer, J. T., and C. Marzban, 2000: Tornadoes in the United States as related to the tropical Pacific sea surface temperature Preprints, 20th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Orlando FL.
——, and R. Edwards, 1999: The SPC tornado/severe thunderstorm database. Preprints, 11th Conf. on Applied Climatology, Dallas, TX, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 603–606.
Schneider, R. S., J. T. Schaefer, and H. E. Brooks, 2004: Tornado outbreak days: An updated and expanded climatology (1875–2003). Preprints, 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms, Hyannis MA, P5.1.
——, H. E. Brooks, and J. T. Schaefer, 2004: Tornado outbreak day sequences: historic events and climatology (1875–2003). Preprints, 22nd Conf. Severe Local Storms, Hyannis MA, 12.1.
Shafer, C. M., and C. A. Doswell III, 2011: Using kernel density estimation to identify, rank, and classify severe weather outbreak events. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 6 (2), 1–28.
Speheger, D. A., C. A. Doswell III., and G. J. Stumpf, 2002: The tornadoes of 3 May 1999: Event verification in central Oklahoma and related issues. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 362–381.
Straka, J. M., and K. M. Kanak, 2022: A climatology of long-track tornadoes. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 2(5), 1–49.
Taszarek, M., J. T. Allen, P. Groenemeijer; R. Edwards; H. E. Brooks; V. Chmielewski; and S.-E. Enno, 2020: Severe convective storms across Europe and the United States. Part 1: Climatology of lightning, large hail, severe wind, and tornadoes. J. Climate, 33, 10239–10261.
Thompson, D. T., and P. E. Roundy, 2013: The relationship between the Madden-Julian oscillation and U.S. violent tornado outbreaks in the spring. Mon. Wea. Rev., 141, 2087–2095.
Thompson, R. L., and R. Edwards, 2000: An overview of environmental conditions and forecast implications of the 3 May 1999 tornado outbreak. Wea. Forecasting, 15, 682–699.
——, and M. D. Vescio, 1998: The Destruction Potential Index — A method for comparing tornado days. Preprints, 19th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Amer. Meteor. Soc., Minneapolis, 280–282.
Trapp, R. J., 2014: On the significance of multiple consecutive days of tornado activity. Mon. Wea. Rev., 142, 1452–1459.
——, and H. E. Brooks, 2013: Regional characterization of tornado activity. J. Appl. Meteor. Climatol., 52, 654–659.
——, G. J. Stumpf, and K. L. Manross, 2005: A reassessment of the percentage of tornadic mesocyclones. Wea. Forecasting, 20, 680–687.
——, S. A. Tessendorf, E. S. Godfrey, and H. E. Brooks, 2005: Tornadoes from squall lines and bow echoes. Part I: Climatological distribution. Wea. Forecasting, 20, 23–34.
Verbout, S. M., H. E. Brooks, L. M. Leslie, and D. M. Schultz, 2006: Evolution of the U.S. tornado database: 1954–2003. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 86–93.
Weaver, S. J., S. Baxter, and A. Kumar, 2012: Climatic role of North American low-level jets on U.S. regional tornado activity. J. Climate, 25, 6666–6683.
Weiss, S. J., 1987: Some climatological aspects of forecasting tornadoes associated with tropical cyclones. Preprints, 17th Conf. Hurricanes and Tropical Meteor., Amer. Meteor. Soc., Miami, 160–163.
Widen, H. M., and Coauthors, 2013: Adjusted tornado probabilities. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 8 (7), 1–12.
TORNADO & SUPERCELL FORECASTING & WARNING
Anderson-Frey, A. K., Y. P. Richardson, A. R. Dean, R. L. Thompson, and B. T. Smith, 2019: Characteristics of tornado events and warnings in the southeastern United States. Wea. Forecasting, 34, 1017–1034.
——, ——, ——, ——, and ——, 2018: Near-storm environments of outbreak and isolated tornadoes. Wea. Forecasting, 33, 1397–1412.
——, ——, ——, ——, and ——, 2016: Investigation of near-storm environments for tornado events and warnings. Wea. Forecasting, 31, 1771–1790.
Baerg, B. M., W. P. Gargan, A. E. Cohen, R. L. Thompson, B. T. Smith, A. P. Gerard, C. J. Schultz, L. A. Kelly, and H. V. Nepaul, 2020: Radar-based, storm-scale circulation and tornado-probability tendencies preceding tornadogenesis in Kansas and Nebraska. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 15 (3), 1–23.
Banacos, P. C., and M. L. Ekster, 2010: The association of the elevated mixed layer with significant severe weather events in the northeastern United States. Wea. Forecasting, 25, 1082–1102.
——, ——, J. W. Dellicarpini, and E. J. Lyons, 2012: A multiscale analysis of the 1 June 2011 Northeast U.S. severe weather outbreak and associated Springfield, Massachusetts tornado. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 7 (7), 1–40.
Bentley, E. S., R.L. Thompson, B. R. Bowers, J. G. Gibbs, and S. E. Nelson, 2021: An analysis of 2016–18 tornadoes and National Weather Service tornado warnings across the contiguous United States. Wea. Forecasting, 36, 1909–1924.
Beveridge, S. L., J. L. Houser, and S. R. Marzola, 2019: A statistical evaluation of tornado-production tendencies of southernmost supercells compared to adjacent supercells in a north-south-oriented line. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 14 (1), 1–33.
Blanchard, D.O., 2011: Supercells in environments with atypical hodographs. Wea. Forecasting, 26, 1075–1083.
Blumberg, W. G., K. T. Halbert, T. A. Supinie*, P. T. Marsh, R. L. Thompson, and J. A. Hart, 2017: SHARPpy: An open source sounding analysis toolkit for the atmospheric sciences. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 98, 1625-1636.
Brotzge, J., S.E. Nelson, R.L. Thompson, and B.T. Smith, 2013: Tornado probability of detection and lead time as a function of convective mode and environmental parameters. Wea. Forecasting, 28, 1261–1262.
——, K. Hondl, B. Philips, L.R. Lemon, E.J. Bass, D. Rude, and D.L. Andra Jr., 2010: Evaluation of distributed collaborative adaptive sensing for detection of low-level circulations and implications for severe weather warning operations. Wea. Forecasting, 25, 173–189.
Brown, M. C., C. J. Nowotarski, A. R. Dean, B. T. Smith, R. L. Thompson, and J. M. Peters, 2021: The early evening transition in southeastern U.S. tornado environments. Wea. Forecasting, 36, 1431–1452.
Bunker, R.C., A.E. Cohen, J.A. Hart, A.E. Gerard, K.E. Klockow-McClain, and D.P. Nowicki, 2019: Examination of the predictability of nocturnal tornado events in the southeastern United States. Wea. Forecasting, 34, 467–479.
Bunkers, M.J., D.A. Barber, R.L. Thompson, R. Edwards, and J.M. Garner, 2014: Choosing a universal mean wind for supercell motion prediction. NWA Electronic J. Oper. Meteor., 2 (11), 115–129.
——, B.A. Klimowski, J.W. Zeitler, R.L. Thompson, and M.L. Weisman, 2000: Predicting supercell motion using a new hodograph technique. Wea. Forecasting, 15, 61–79.
——, M.R. Hjelmfelt, and P.L. Smith, 2006: An observational examination of long-lived supercells. Part I: Characteristics, evolution, and demise. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 673–688.
——, J.S. Johnson, L.J. Czepyha, J.M. Grzywacz, B.A. Klimowski, and M.R. Hjelmfelt, 2006: An observational examination of long-lived supercells. Part II: Environmental conditions and forecasting. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 689–714.
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Cohen, A.E., 2010: Indices of violent tornado environments. NWA Electronic J. Operational Meteor., 2010-EJ-6.
——, J.B. Cohen, R.L. Thompson, and B.T. Smith, 2018: Simulating tornado probability and tornado wind speed based on statistical models. Wea. Forecasting, 33, 1099–1108.
Coleman, T.A., A.W. Lyza, K.R. Knupp, K. Laws, and W. Wyatt, 2018: A significant tornado in a heterogeneous environment during VORTEX-SE. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 13 (2), 1-25.
Craven, J.P., and H.E. Brooks, 2004: Baseline climatology of sounding derived parameters associated with deep, moist convection. Natl. Wea. Dig., 28, 13–24.
Davies, J.M., 2017: Meteorological setting for a catastrophic event: The deadly Joplin tornado of 22 May 2011. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 12 (3), 1–23.
——, 2006: Tornadoes in environments with small helicity and/or high LCL heights. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 579–594.
——, 2006: Tornadoes with cold core 500-mb lows. Wea. Forecasting, 21, 1051–1062.
——, 2004: Estimations of CIN and LFC associated with tornadic and nontornadic supercells. Wea. Forecasting, 19, 714–726.
——, and R.H. Johns, 1993: Some wind and instability parameters associated with strong and violent tornadoes. Part I: Helicity and mean shear magnitudes. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards (C. Church et al., Eds.), Geophysical Monograph 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 573–582.
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Edwards, R., S.F. Corfidi, R.L. Thompson, J.S. Evans, J.P. Craven, J.P. Racy, D.W. McCarthy and M.D. Vescio, 2002: Storm Prediction Center forecasting issues related to the 3 May 1999 tornado outbreak. Wea. Forecasting, 17, 544–558.
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——, ——, B.T. Smith, R.L. Thompson, I.L. Jirak, and S.R. Dembek, 2018: Blended probabilistic tornado forecasts: Combining climatological frequencies with NSSL-WRF ensemble forecasts. Wea. Forecasting, 33, 443–460.
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Garner, J.M., 2013: A study of synoptic-scale tornado regimes. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 8 (3), 1–25.
——, 2012: Environments of significant tornadoes occurring within the warm sector versus those occurring along surface baroclinic boundaries. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 7 (5), 11–28.
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Kay, M.P., and H.E. Brooks, 2000: Verification of probabilistic severe storm forecasts at the SPC. Preprints, 20th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, Orlando, FL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 285–288.
Keene, K.M., P.T. Schlatter, J.E. Hales, and H.E. Brooks, 2008: Evaluation of NWS watch and warning performance related to tornadic events. Preprints, 24th Conf. Severe Local Storms, Savannah, GA, Amer. Meteor. Soc., P3.19.
Kingfield, D. M., and J. G. LaDue, 2015: The relationship between automated low-level velocity calculations from the WSR-88D and maximum tornado intensity determined from damage surveys. Wea. Forecasting, 30, 1125–1139.
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Knupp, K. R., and Coauthors, 2014: Meteorological overview of the devastating 27 April 2011 tornado outbreak. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 95, 1041–1062.
Krocak, M. J., M. D. Flournoy, and H. E. Brooks, 2021: Examining subdaily tornado warning performance and associated environmental characteristics. Wea. Forecasting, 36, 1779–1784.
Krocak, M. J., and H. E. Brooks, 2021: The influence of weather watch type on the quality of tornado warnings and its implications for future forecasting systems. Wea. Forecasting, 36, 1675–1680.
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——, and ——, 1991: A synoptic climatology of the elevated mixed-layer inversion over the southern Great Plains. Part III: Relationship to severe-storms climatology. Wea. Forecasting, 6, 214–226.
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——, A. W. Clayton, K. R. Knupp, E. Lenning, M. T. Friedlein, R. Castro, and E. S. Bentley, 2017: Analysis of mesovortex characteristics, behavior, and interactions during the second 30 June-1 July 2014 Midwestern derecho event. Electronic J. Severe Storms Meteor., 12 (2), 1–-33.
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OTHER REFERENCES
American Meteorological Society (AMS), 2000: Glossary of Meteorology. 855 pp.